To The Lighthouse By Virginia Woolf Transcending Death Essays

To The Lighthouse By Virginia Woolf : Transcending Death Transcending Death in To the Lighthouse The greatest obstacle to identifying a purpose for human life is the inevitability of death. Why should a human being strive for any goal when death will always be the final result of his striving, and after death he will be oblivious to any positive or negative effects of his lifetime actions? Virginia Woolf tackles this dilemma in her novel To the Lighthouse by presenting characters who attempt to transcend death either through accomplishments in art and science, or by nurturing other human beings. Mr. Ramsay and Charles Tansley take the path of intellectual accomplishment; Mrs. Ramsay represents the path of human nurturing. Although the characters derive some comfort from their efforts to transcend death, they are also tormented by the fear that they will not succeed in their strivings, and come to doubt that successful transcendence is even possible. Woolf never resolves this conflict in the novel. Instead, she maintains an ambivalence, illustrating both the benefits and the pitfalls of the two transcendence strategies. The dilemma of transcending death has traditionally been answered through belief in a God who can grant salvation. Christianity promises its believers that if they strive for salvation, they can avoid death and enjoy eternal life. To the Lighthouse is distinctly modern in that God is rejected outright: How could any Lord have made this world? Mrs. Ramsay asks herself, concluding that the world is too full of suffering to have been created by a divine savior (64). None of the other characters base their hopes for transcending death on divine salvation either; they consistently strive for results in this world. To the Lighthouse includes two characters who attempt to transcend death through intellectual accomplishments: Mr. Ramsay and Charles Tansley, both of whom are philosophers. The predominance of intellectuals in Virginia Woolf's novel could be explained by her own life in the British intelligentsia. However, intellectual endeavors are essentially the same as other human endeavors in their risks and rewards. It may be that Woolf was simply writing about those endeavors which she knew best, but intended her points to be much more widely applicable. Woolf makes explicit comparisons to more traditionally heroic kinds of accomplishment in describing Mr. Ramsay's struggle to analyze his degree of intellectual success: Qualities that would have saved a ship's company exposed on a broiling sea with six biscuits and a flask of water--endurance and justice, foresight, devotion, skill, came to his help...Qualities that in a desolate expedition across the icy solitudes of the Polar region would have made him the leader, the guide, the counsellor, whose temper, neither sanguine nor despondent, surveys with equanimity what is to be and faces it, came to his help again...Feelings that would not have disgraced a leader who, now that the snow has begun to fall and the mountain top is covered in mist, knows that he must lay himself down and die before morning comes, stole upon him... (34-35) The hope of transcendence for people who endeavor in any field, whether it is art, science, politics, business, war or exploration, lies in achieving recognition for their accomplishments. If they do great work, they tell themselves, they will be remembered by future generations and thus achieve a measure of immortality. But all endeavors are inherently risky; one can never be sure how well one will succeed, or how much one's peers and posterity will notice. Mr. Ramsay expresses his desire to transcend death through intellectual accomplishment most clearly in his lengthy mental soliloquy on levels of achievement. He uses the analogy of an alphabet, in which people advance from A toward Z as they achieve greater intellectual feats. He reached Q. Very few people in the whole of England ever reach Q, thinks Mr. Ramsay, proud of his current achievements but acutely aware of how far he still has to go (33). His next thought is full of doubt about his ability to succeed: A shutter, like the leathern eyelid of a lizard, flickered over the intensity of his gaze and obscured the letter R. In that flash of darkness he heard people saying--he was a failure--that R was beyond him. He would never reach R. On to R, once more. R-- (34) The flash of darkness initiated by the closing of the lizard's eye is a symbol of death, reinforced by the ancient association between reptiles and denial of salvation. It is also significant that Mr. Ramsay

The Meno Essays - Socratic Dialogues, Dialogues Of Plato, Meno

The Meno Essays - Socratic Dialogues, Dialogues Of Plato, Meno The Meno The Meno asks the question what is virtue and can it be taught?. Menos conversation with Socrates is an attempt to know exactly what virtue means and how it can be defined to come to the decision of whether or not it can in fact be taught to others. But as Meno finds, contrary to his original perceptions as an ethical relativist, he does not know what virtue is, and in his new state of ethical absolutism, cannot therefore teach Socrates what virtue is, for how can one teach what one does not know? It becomes the conclusion amongst the two, that virtue is a divine gift to those who are virtuous, and cannot be taught as it is not knowledge and it cannot be said that there are teachers of it. However, Socrates, through his refutations of Menos questions and arguments, does not justify his conclusion that it cannot be taught. Several logical fallacies are present within the argument put forth by Socrates. And as Meno states, he has a numbing effect on those around him, such that they might not even notice his failings until a later examination. After exhausting all definitions he has for what virtue is, all of them being countered by Socrates and determined to be inadequate definitions, one of the problems Meno then has with understanding what virtue is comes from this paradox: How can you try to find out something, when you have no notion at all about what it is? However, the problem Meno has here is not clearly stated. Does he suggest that you either know what youre looking for, and therefore do not need to inquire into it, or you dont know what youre looking for, and therefore cannot inquire into it, because you dont know it? This leads to the question of whether what you know is either the question you want to ask, or the answer to that question. One obviously cannot both know and not know the same thing. However, one can know the question but not the answer. Therefore, you can inquire into something you do not know of, if you know the question you wish to ask. And from this question, you would follow whatever steps are necessary to get the answer, and end up knowing which you did not previously know. However, Socrates puts forth a different perspective here, by attempting to demonstrate his Recollection Theory. This theory purports that inquiry can be impossible in some instances, but what is seen to be learning is in fact the recollection of something previously known. Though Socrates puts forth an admirable effort to support his recollection theory, there is a flaw in his argument. He uses a slave boy to exemplify how the theory works. He sets forth the geometrical problem to the slave boy simply enough; however, with each wrong answer from the boy, he proceeds to lead him closer to the correct conclusion. The boy makes guesses, that Socrates dismisses in small conversation bits with Meno to one side. Right away, this would suggest that he is, in fact, teaching the boy something, whether he will admit to it or not. When the boy suggests the length of the lines be doubled to four to make a square of eight, Socrates immediately speaks with Meno and asks if he is correct , to which Meno replies that the boy is wrong in his assumption. Socrates draws this new square and specifically asks Is four times the old one double? to which the boy replies no, it is four times. This information was given to him by Socrates. After the boy unsuccessfully tries to determine the answer to Socrates puzzle again by saying that the line should now be three, Socrates gives the boy the answer by drawing lines bm, mi, ig, gb (top of page forty-nine) and asking him if that is not the answer, to which the boy replies in the affirmative. It is almost puzzling as to why Meno agrees with Socrates that the boy simply answered the question on his own, when he so obviously did not. It could be speculated that given the stature of Socrates at the time, Meno simply couldnt bring himself to disagree, or was so sure of Socrates wisdom, that he accepted his example as truth. Had it not been for the help of Socrates, the boy might never have known the answer.

How to Write For a Global Audience [16 unexpected examples]

How to Write For a Global Audience [16 unexpected examples] As businesses become more international, so must our writing. Most of the time, good business writing skills transfer very well to global audiences, but there are some things that you want to keep in mind aboutintercultural relations. Lots of research has been done on this topic, so I’ll include links for further reading. I am hesitant to add in examples because they may not be true even five years from now - I have seen so much change in the time that I have been teaching! With that said, I will add in some examples to make these concepts clearer. Do your research on honorifics and attitudes towards hierarchy The way that we show respect to our superiors and our coworkers varies dramatically across cultures. From the outside, the U.S. looks like it has a fairly casual and egalitarian work structure. For example: We are comfortable working on teams and in groups with people older and younger than us, and with more and less seniority. We tend to address people the same way throughout an organization. We would say, â€Å"Good morning, John!† to the boss and to the janitor. Eye contact is a sign that we are paying attention to someone, i.e. that we respect them enough to listen to them. You may be interested in our English Business Writing Course for non-native writers (ESL). This is not the case in many other cultures/countries. In some places, hierarchy, class, status, and rank are very important, and they require you to act and speak very differently depending on the content. For example: Japanese culture is a good example of this. The language itself requires different grammatical structures, and sometimes completely different words, depending on the hierarchical relationship between the speaker(s) and the listener(s). These grammatical differences reflect the cultural attitudes towards hierarchy and status. Indian culture is similarly stratified. It is often inappropriate for a lower level worker to speak or work with more senior employees. In many parts of Latin America, it is (or was!) socially inappropriate to make eye contact with your superior. hbspt.cta._relativeUrls=true;hbspt.cta.load(41482, '213460bb-69d3-4e2a-a04c-3c219b7fe780', {}); Use the key words â€Å"honorifics + country name† or â€Å"attitudes towards hierarchy + country name† to do a bit of research when starting a new project with a global group. This could avoid a lot of problematic misconceptions about your team mates and how they are responding to you! Be flexible in how you think about time management Ideas about time are tied to culture. It could be the culture of your particular workplace, or the culture of the larger society, but how we think about time varies dramatically. Some places value how many hours you work, while others value how much work you complete in those hours, and still others are a mix of the two. Some places value making decisions quickly, while others put much more time into making a decision. Some places see due dates and start times as if they are absolute, while others see them as if they are flexible suggestions. These are often cultural differences, but they can vary widely across work places. (I work in higher ed, and the decision making process is painfully slow compared with the private sector places I worked before!) It’s important to remember that a missed deadline may not be due to laziness, but a difference of opinions about what deadlines actually mean. If you find yourself getting frustrated with your global team, take a deep breath and do some research on time management and decision making. Use the key words above, as well as attitudes about time, + country name. Doing this before a meeting or project begins can prevent a lot of frustration. Honor ideas about change Depending on where you work, ideas about change can vary widely, even within the U.S. For example: Some cultures or workplaces value innovation and new ideas. This attitude is common in the U.S. Other places value and respect tradition and the time-tested ways of doing things. This attitude is more commonly found in places with more hierarchical societies. Clearly, a group with different ideas about change will have difficulty finding a suitable solution! Finding a middle ground that values the traditional approach while allowing for innovation is tricky, but invaluable when working with global teams. This could be as simple as acknowledging that the current innovation wouldn’t be possible without the groundwork laid by the traditional approach. Write simply, but powerfully We'vewritten several other blog posts onhow to improve your business writing skills, but the overall message is this: Write simply and directly. Do not use colloquialisms, idioms, highly technical language, or complicated grammatical structures. Use lists and headings to help break up content and make it easy for the reader to know what to do. (like I am doing here!) Do not rely on implicit messages, or something mentioned in a meeting or previous email. Say everything you need to say clearly, directly, and in language that someone outside of your field could understand. A combination of straightforward written communications and consideration for cultural differences will greatly improve your business communications, increase effectiveness, and save time. Instructional Solutions offers Business Writing Coursesthat can help you to achieve this type of writing. More info here: Further reading: â€Å"Managing Multicultural Teams† The Harvard Business Review â€Å"Global Teams that Work† The Harvard Business Review â€Å"How to Run a Meeting of People From Different Cultures† The Harvard Business Review

12 angry men movie Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

12 angry men movie - Essay Example The movie for nominated for three Oscars(Best Director, Best Picture and Best Writing, screenplay based on material from another medium) and finds a place in the list of all time great movies. In 2007, the library of Congress chose â€Å"12 angry men† for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. Here, we analyze the dynamics of the 12 jurors and what might have influenced them in taking a decision in favor of or against the accused. The movie begins with the scene in which the judge is seen giving instructions to a jury consisting of 12 gentlemen. The judge informs the jury that the defendant will have to take the electric chair if proved guilty. The jury is also instructed that their judgment should be unanimous. The jury then moves into the jury room where they get acquainted with the other members of the jury and start their work. The case which opens up as an open and shut case takes a turn when one of jurors (juror #8) decides to veto the decision of the other eleven jurors. He is able to convince the other jurors that the defendant should be acquitted as there is doubt beyond reasonable limit questioning the authenticity of the witnesses. However, the other jurors do not follow the juror #8 quickly. The juror #8 faces strong argument from the other members which sets up the film. The jury decided to vote 12-0 in favor of acquittal and closing scene shows the twelve jurors leaving the jury room to present their findings of fact to the court. Juror #8(Henry Fonda) is the most important character of the plot as he is the first to veto the decision and question the authenticity of the witnesses. Though the juror #8 appears both confident and nervous at the beginning, as the discussion proceeds he succeeds in making the other jurors believe in his argument that there is doubt beyond reasonable limit in declaring the boy as guilty of murder. Juror #9 immediately supports the view of juror #8. Juror #5 and #2 also follow

Sacred Rite - Roman Catholic Christian Sacramental Worship Research Paper

Sacred Rite - Roman Catholic Christian Sacramental Worship - Research Paper Example This paper will discuss the sacred rites around the Catholic Christian worship. Catholic catechism helps it followers understand the deep mysteries of the Church. It purports to be the only church left by Jesus Christ, and they state this in the creed the decreed the church as one, holy, Catholic and apostolic. To Catholics, a sacrament is a sacred procedure through which God uses to express his grace to humankind. In addition, sacraments depict Gods presence. Before Jesus Christ left earth, Catholics believe he celebrated seven sacraments, which they hold dear in their faith. These include baptism, confirmation Eucharist, penance, anointing of the sick, matrimony, and religious orders. Eucharist is a vital sacrament that holds most of the Catholic faith. They believe that it completes a new believer’s initiation to the church. It is the only sacrament that is celebrated daily as Catholic faithful congregate for their prayers that they call â€Å"mass.† Eucharistic sacrifice includes prayers, reading parts of the bible, singing of hymns, and priests present. The wheat and wine in some peculiar glasses are lifted to God, and the priest chants some words to invite God to do the transformation. After these prayers, Christians partake of the bread as the body of Jesus and wine as the blood of Jesus. In this, they celebrate his death and resurrection on the cross, which they believe to have washed their original sin caused by Adam and Eve. Not all Catholic Christians participate in the Eucharist in a celebration. Eucharist is sacred and therefore, Christians living in sin will not partake of it. Such Christians include married couples who did not have their union blessed in church and people who have not gone for atonement for some time and thus have accumulated sins. In the Catholic faith, ordination to the priesthood is a sacrament on its own. Every Christian has the right to choose to marry or spend a celibate life.  

Psychoanalysis and the Treatment of Drug Addiction Essay Example for Free

Psychoanalysis and the Treatment of Drug Addiction Essay Drug addiction persists to present major challenge to serving psychoanalysts. There are different techniques used to treat drug addiction however this paper mainly discusses psychoanalysis as a mode of treatment for drug addiction. Even though media hype regarding the issue of drug addiction has augmented in the last few years, there has not been sufficient stress on different methods used to deal with it. Therapists, educationist, and the common public require information on the subject of treatment methods and means that are accessible to them. Gradually more, experienced psychoanalysts are getting employed in drug addiction programs (Hosie, West, Mackey, 1997). In order to be successful, they should be aware of different methods used in drug addiction treatment and try to incorporate them into their daily practice and job. People who are in the field of drug addiction treatment, nonetheless, must try to have clear idea about using different methods of treatment (Schonfeld Morosko, 1997). Among the various modalities used to treat drug addiction are the twelve-step program of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), professional counselling and psychiatric care, family systems therapy, and therapeutic community treatment. In the past, these approaches have often been at odds with one another (Minkoff, 1995). Some of the debates have involved whether drug addiction is a disease in and of itself or is reflective of some underlying psychopathology. The proponents of the disease model have included AA (1995) supporters, who have tended to focus on abstinence as a way of controlling the disease. Adherents to the psychopathology model have mainly been mental health professionals who have advocated psychiatric and professional counselling treatment. Yeager, DiGiuseppe, Olsen, Lewis, and Alberti (1997) noted that therapeutic community treatment has become increasingly popular because traditional and more individually oriented psychiatric modalities have not been very effective. They echoed the argument made by Vaillant (1975) that clients suffering from drug addiction need milieu and group involvement with their peers. External control, containment, and structure from milieu-oriented treatment are needed before meaningful psychotherapy can begin. Stanton and Todd (2000) agreed that peer influence can play a role in less serious drug addiction problems however that long-term drug addiction generally has its origins in adolescence and that serious drug abuse is predominantly a family phenomenon (p. 8). They argued that family therapy is therefore the logical treatment of choice. Psychoanalysis And Drug Addiction To be exact, severe drug addiction is considered as being motivated by contradictory and unsettled relational kinematicsthat drawn from the premature systematizing relations in a individuals lives. As far as drug addiction is concerned, the terms of this disagreement discover solid look in distinguishing actions of using drugs that provide to spread it with the help of the mutual results of reinforcement and disguise. The objective of treatment is for patient and psychoanalyst to uncover the constituents of the relational ties that are embedded in the drug use, to reformulate these forces in figurative expressions, and tore-check them in the kinematics of the change, next to prospects for latest exchange. Seen this way, the treatment requirements of drug users can finely be convened by psychoanalysis, improved by other methods essential for dealing with addiction. In the past drug addiction has been shut out from psychoanalysis and this method of treatment, clearly in its insinuation, might appear merely to validate that standing. Doing psychoanalysis treatment of drug users, comparing with other treatment methods, educates awareness on these desire states and uses replacement as a remedial instrument. No matter what the stress of the theory or character of the foundation, every analysis of addictive disorder that represent on entity associations tacitly contribute to a common principle: that the action of drug use comes into view as a result of desire. Whilst created by a lot of dependent variables, an operation of severe drug use, if intra-psychically inspected, at all times corresponds to an attempt to bring about inner alteration, or outside reaction, in a exacting, approved method. Almond (1997) has described desire as â€Å"a personal condition—a feeling of total control or power—that the person endeavours to bring about with his action and/or fantasy† (p. 3). By these stipulations, an action of excessive drug use signifies a fundamental, desire condition and is a means to implement it, whether with regard to effects desired in the self or others in the outside world. Rik Loose discussed in his book â€Å"The Subject of Addiction† that psychoanalysis and addiction are counterparts of the world of science and techniques. Therefore, since, the logical dialogue centers on the issue and the drug user’s relationship to his reason of desire. In an intelligent approach, Rik Loose depicts the reason of globalization that requires our times and counters to it as a organization governed by desire and ideals. (Loose, 2002) Psychoanalysts who work with drug users know that the act of drug use is an indicative result of a procedure of previous changes. The language of diversity, acknowledged as a modern construction for intellect, allows us to spot the drug user as careworn into specific states of mind— comprising of particular influence, feelings regarding the person himself and others, feelings concerning the world—that augment the desires and cravings that are confined and apparently recognized in typical action of drug use. One might also say that, for a given drug consumer, the action of using the drug provides to intrepidly set the limits of a basic state of oneself. In fact, the preliminary investigative mission with the drug user comprises of extricating the user from attraction with the drug in order to divert the user in its place in the self-state that portends it. Astonishingly, the standing of desire in the addiction is for the most part uncared for in drug treatment. Drug users in this kind of situations are frequently encouraged to talk to other recuperating fellows when they believe themselves to be caught up in desire to take in drug. (Loose, 2002) This suggestion— regularly wielded by twelve-step companionship also, in the shape of a status offer to talk to one’s supporter every time sensing the urge to take drug—is evidently well planned (and, no doubt, useful at times). On the other hand this type of counselling is sightless to the internal truth of the state of desire that not just impels substance users presumptuous in their use of drugs, nevertheless in addition throw away understanding of other individuals in their lives to the periphery of their brain. Moreover, still as conventional treatment programs dedicate significant consideration to the issue of reversion— enlightening drug users in relation to surroundings stimuli and inner feelings (e. g. depression, loneliness) that could encourage desires to use drugs—they pay no attention to the desire aver that the course of reversion usually serve to perform. Due to this rationale, psychoanalysis has a lot to proffer the severe drug user: whilst the majority of drug treatments look forward to putting an end to drug addicting behaviour, the psychoanalytic attempt would take in this objective and stretch further to investigate the desire state that uncovers end result in drug use and in other prototypes of actions in his or her life. In effect, the methodical approach would be to treat the person’s drug use nevertheless look for to disengage such a symptomatic outburst from the original self-state, which has required to be conserved for its background and significance to the person and, for that basis, deserve consideration (Bromberg, 1998). â€Å"transformation come in an analysis,† Winnicott (1960) wrote, â€Å"when the traumatic factors enter the psycho-analytic material in the patient’s own way, and within the patient’s desire† (p. 37). This regulatory statement can also be functional to remedial work with drug users, whose desire intend, usually set free â€Å"out there,† requirement to be completely greeted into the methodical exchange. In fact, it is from the point of view of the functioning coalition— nevertheless effectively realizes with a drug user—that the analyst may sense another exchange transpiring in the transference. In it, the analyst is excluded from all events eventuating in the patient’s drug use and is left to feel helpless. Not only is the patient’s move to a state of emotional cut-off a marker of desire, so is the analyst’s helpless state. (Loose, 2002) For it is these feelings of helplessness in the analyst that point to the history of pain or trauma in the patient that may have showed the way to the user’s need for desire to start with, and to such severity. Nonetheless, certain new trends in investigative way and the significance of a relational viewpoint in understanding drug use, the ability of psychoanalysts, amplified by understanding of addiction, can be of utmost advantage to them. That is why a relational model of psychoanalytically based treatment has significance for severe drugs users. This statement may seem surprising on two accounts: psychoanalysis has often been considered useless for active drug users, and drug users have often been judged unsuitable for psychoanalysis. (Loose, 2002) Both assumptions are false, though accepted as truths in the mental health and drug addiction treatment worlds. Recent changes that have taken place in the understanding of the psychoanalytic process make relationally informed psychoanalysis an ideal therapeutic venue for drug users. These shifts in psychoanalysis have reversed its previous lack of fit for drug addiction. Any Psychoanalyst who has spent time working with drug users has heard, first-hand, accounts of the disrepute of psychoanalysis from the standpoint of addicted patients. (Loose, 2002) The traditional analytic stance that emphasized observation smacked of passivity to drug users, and the priority given to aetiology over symptoms often left patients’ drinking and drug use unattended to. However contemporary psychoanalysis has shifted its style of investigation; as Mitchell (1997) stated, it has moved away from reliance on interpretation and insight as the primary tools for achieving therapeutic change. Rather, psychoanalysis today places emphasis on an analyst’s ability to enter into a patient’s dynamics, mobilized in transference–counter transference form; together with the patient to arrive at an understanding of these experiences; and, in the process, to find new forms of relating for the patient to trust, in the place of old, constraining patterns (Mitchell, 1997; Bromberg, 1998). In short, today’s psychoanalyst is every bit an engaged participant. How does this development serve the substance-using patient? The drug user tends to be a do-er and act-er, and, on technical grounds alone, needs an active approach to feel meaningfully engaged, even adequately â€Å"gripped† by the therapeutic process. However, on another level, it is precisely the drug user’s recourse to action to express conflicting relational needs that is the target of treatment. (Loose, 2002) Reliance on action is a cornerstone of the drug user’s characterologic makeup (Wurmser, 1977, 1978). It is typically this reliance that has earned him disfavour with psychoanalysts, whose work depends so on reflection and delay. Action serves many purposes for the drug user, however it is usually its defensive function that has been highlighted by theorists. In this view, as articulated by Wurmser, action gives the drug user a powerful alternative to, or, more accurately, means of flight from, painful affects and inadequate tools of symbolic expression. Drug users are notable for limitations in their symbolic functioning: Wurmser termed their difficulties â€Å"hypo-symbolization,† describing deficits that range from a specific inability to recognize and label feelings to a more sweeping failure to engage in fantasy or exploration of their inner lives at all. In such a view, again elaborated by Wurmser, action serves as a special form of externalization, offering the person its magical, problem solving properties and the appearance of narcissistic control. However if, instead of emphasizing its defensive role, we view action as the vehicle drug users have for communicating un-symbolized experience, then it is to their actions we must look for the initial outlines of their conflicts. Drug use is then far from unwelcome in undertaking analytic treatment of a person taking drugs. It is the signature act of such a patient and, as such, contains the components of his unconscious and as yet un-symbolized life; it is the starting point of treatment. The intended course of that treatment would then be for analyst and patient to begin to uncover the relational deadlock embedded in the drug use. (Loose, 2002) Their aim is to discover that deadlock anew in the kinematicsof the transference, often at first still involving instances of drug use, and eventually to locate it within the organizing relationships of the patient’s early life, ultimately replayed and addressed free of reference to drugs, within the experience of the treatment relationship. In other words, the aim of therapeutic action would be to track, and deconstruct, the symptom from its extra-psychic form, concretized in drug use, to its intra-psychic life in the patient’s object relations (Boesky, 2000). It is here that the needs of the person consuming drug and the current state of psychoanalytic practice converge. Enactments, whereby patients draw their analysts into jointly realizing fantasized aspects of their object relations, play a recognized role in analytic practice today. Though theorists of various schools differ in their understanding of enactments, view of the analyst’s role, and sense of their therapeutic value, there is general agreement in the field that enactments are inevitable manifestations of transference–counter-transference forces at work in the analytic process (Ellman and Moskowitz, 1998). In relational theory, in particular, enactments are regarded not only as unavoidable, however also as the central medium of the work. They are the means through which patient and analyst are afforded the opportunity to revive old relational patterns jointly, as well as to reopen them to observation, understanding, and possibilities for change within the analytic relationship (Mitchell, 1997; Bromberg, 1998). By placing enactment at the heart of analytic work, relational practitioners have opened the door of psychoanalysis to substance using patients. This is so for several reasons: first, enactments provide drug users with a mode of communication tailor made to their needs to actualize, rather than reflect on, inner experience (Boesky, 2000). More important, enactments are a conduit for experience whose transitional properties uniquely serve the drug user—offering not only a bridge between the patient’s symptomatic behaviour outside the consulting room to his conduct within the treatment, however also, more generally, a bridge between action and meaning, drug and object, act of drug use and underlying relational needs. In theory and approach, then, the relational model provides the basis for the desired course of treatment for drug users. To be sure, no treatment of drug addiction could be effective by attending to the relational underpinnings of drug use alone. Severe drug use is a dangerous and potentially life-threatening problem; however derived, it nonetheless is sustained by the powerful pharmacological effects of drugs and the operation of the laws of conditioning on people’s behaviour. (Loose, 2002) Any Psychoanalyst working with a person taking drug must have a working knowledge of a range of ancillary treatment modalities commonly needed during the course of their treatment. Such approaches include use of cognitive-behavioural interventions, referrals to residential or intensive outpatient programs, support for participation in 12-step programs, use of toxicology tests, and use of pharmaco-therapies designed to counteract or inhibit drug effects (for example, disulfiram for alcoholics, naltrexone for opiate addicts). Purely speaking, then, any treatment of active drug user is, by force, integrative in practice, if, ultimately, psychoanalytic in design. However, if appropriately used, such supplementary therapies do not necessarily compromise the analytic task; in fact, it is my argument that the particular tools summoned during the course of any one patient’s treatment are—like his drug use—uniquely customized to fit his relational needs and are therefore best understood within a psychoanalytic framework.

Smallpox in New England :: Colonial Diseases Native Americans Essays

Smallpox in New England The original New England Natives first felt the effects of Smallpox and other diseases during the first decade of the sixteenth century. This was shortly after John Cabot explored the coast in 1498. By 1504, constant fishing trips were being made by the French and Portuguese, which started the spread of disease. However, It wasn’t until the outbreak of 1616 and 1617, when huge numbers of natives were killed. Diseases like chicken Pox, cholera, the plague, tuberculosis, and many others were introduced to New England for the first time. For the most part, Europeans had become immune to these diseases over the years. The natives, on the other hand, were completely vulnerable. ¹ Native Americans were completely susceptible to contracting the disease, but they weren't the only victims. Twenty people died on the Mayflower as a result of smallpox. There was a smallpox outbreak in Plymouth Colony around 1633. Twenty people died including their only physician. This was the beginning of the colonial's struggle with the disease. Smallpox became distinguishable as the most destructive disease in New England in 1633. From this date forward, smallpox continued to plague New England. Captain John Oldham was considered the first Englishman to conduct explorations along the Connecticut River. After his trip north, there was a severe breakout of smallpox. Many Natives held him responsible for the thousands of deaths that spread from Maine to New York and up into Quebec. The truth of the matter is Henry Hudson and his followers had already begun spreading the disease into New England from above, in Canada. Quebec was established in 1608. The French found an oppurtunity to trade in nearby Ontario with both the Huron and Iroquois. This interaction led to a smallpox outbreak in the area between 1634 and 1640. ² In 1636, The Jesuits provided Hurons, Abenakis, and tribes of the St.